Cognitive Development and Moral Understanding

My task was to outline and evaluate one theory of cognitive development and contrast this against one theory of moral understanding. I chose Jean Piaget’s theory and Lawrence Kohlberg’s theory because I like their works and respect these two people very much. Besides, I have had some personal experience from my sessions as a coach in the last few years. I also used these experiences because I believe that there are some similarities with the examined theories.

We distinguish several kinds of development theories:

• Psychosexual development theory, which can be linked to Sigmund Freud
• Psychosocial development theory by Erik Erikson
• Cognitive development theory by Jean Piaget, while
• We can also associate moral development theory primarily with Lawrence Kohlberg.

First of all, I would like to clarify some basic questions and concepts as a beginning.

What does cognitive mean? What does development mean? What does cognitive development mean?

What is moral? What is understanding? What is moral development? What is moral understanding?

CognitiveThe word cognitive originally comes from the Latin “cognosco” (understanding, comprehending) and “nosco” (knowing). In my own words, it has two levels of meaning.First is understanding. It is related to the process of achieving knowledge when we comprehend, apprehend, perceive and feel relationships and differences.The second is thinking—when somebody is in a thinking process.For instance, anticipating the expected consequences is a cognitive thinking process. We can anticipate the expected results with thinking or with real observation. The latter generally leads to a more effective solution than mere cognitive reflection.

DevelopmentIn general, the phrase development refers to those processes that involve qualitative changes and achieving a more and more differentiated organization.The spectacular period of human development is a long era. In this era, a newborn person who is unable to care for himself becomes an adult. Development is not only on a physical level but also a mental, intellectual, and spiritual one. Development is a personal road of the individual. On this path, the individual learns and begins to practice what is learned. This practice results in new effects, feedback, and thus new experiences. These areas do not develop at the same time during a lifetime. The order and rhythm of the development of different abilities and skills do not affect the achievable level during the life path.Development cannot be hastened or pushed. One must always begin from the level where the individual stands.

Cognitive developmentAccording to Jean Piaget’s (1936) theory, cognitive development explains how a child builds up a mental model of the world. He disagreed with the idea that intelligence was a fixed quality. He was the first psychologist to make a systematic study of cognitive development.“To Piaget, cognitive development was a progressive reorganization of mental processes as a result of biological maturation and environmental experience. Children construct an understanding of the world around them, then experience discrepancies between what they already know and what they discover in their environment.” (by Saul McLeod, SimplyPsychology, updated 2018)In this connection, I would like to share my own experience in my coaching career. I have about 3,500 hours of sessions. My clients are already adults, usually 30-50 years old. I have observed as if they had two kinds of value systems. I call these value systems home values and created values. The home values come from childhood and were built in childhood from the various effects, stimuli, and education of their parents. The created values are those built up during adult years from different effects, stimuli, feedback, and personal experiences. I have noticed the existence of the two kinds of value systems, which can cause different inner conflicts. If the two value systems are very different, coachees often feel they have to choose between them. The existence of these value systems raised many interesting questions in my mind.

Back to Piaget (1936). His theory had four essential parts:sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, and formal operational. We need to begin our explanation with the word schema.Schema is one of the basic concepts in Piaget’s theory.

Schema in Piaget’s theoryIt says we need to have mental models of our world. If we do not have mental models, we would not be able to use our experience of the past or to plan our future.Schemas are the essential foundation stones of cognitive models. They help us to create our mental picture of the world. Piaget (1952, p. 7) defined it as:”a cohesive, repeatable action sequence possessing component actions that are tightly interconnected and governed by a core meaning.” (Piaget)He said that schemas are the foundation of intelligent behavior. These are the methods by which we organize acquired knowledge.We began to get to know the phrase cognitive development, but here is another important phrase, too. This is equilibrium.

Equilibrium is a kind of mental balance. In this mental state, a child can perceive their environment and be able to compare this with their information (schemas) about the world. This state we call cognitive (i.e., mental) balance.

The schemas are mental illustrations of the world, which help us to understand several situations on a relatively wide scale. He talked about how we store these mental representations and use them if we need to.According to Piaget, adults have more complex schemas while babies have simpler ones.He described that as children get older, they have more and more schemas and these become more elaborate.Piaget thought that newborn babies have innate schemas, which were created before they had their own experience of the world.“These neonatal schemas are the cognitive structures underlying innate reflexes. These reflexes are genetically programmed into us. For example, babies have a sucking reflex, which is triggered by something touching the baby’s lips. A baby will suck a nipple, a comforter (dummy), or a person’s finger. Piaget, therefore, assumed that the baby has a ‘sucking schema.’” (by Saul McLeod, SimplyPsychology, updated 2018)

Assimilation and Accommodation in Piaget’s theoryThe phrases assimilation and accommodation (Piaget, 1952; see also Wadsworth, 2004) meant for Piaget a kind of process of adaptation to the world like mental growth.This happens in the following way:First step is assimilation, which means that somebody uses an existing schema in a new situation.Second step is accommodation. It means that we have a “not-working” schema and it needs to be changed for a new situation.Equilibration is that state when a child has enough schemas for most new information with the tools of assimilation. By comparison, disequilibrium means that new information cannot be assimilated into available schemas.Equilibration is an inner need because we do not like to be disappointed. When we meet with a new situation we try to make a new balance.Meeting with new information takes part in continuing the process of assimilation until the next time we need it.

Stages of DevelopmentPiaget distinguished four cognitive developmental stages:

1. Sensorimotor stage (birth to age 2):

This is a sensory and movement stage. The child experiments by moving their body. They begin to distinguish their body and their environment. They realize that objects exist even though we do not perceive them. 2. Pre-operational stage (from age 2 to age 7):Children begin to think about things symbolically. When children start talking at the age of one and a half, they can express objects with words and with objects—they have a system of symbols. 3. Concrete operational stage (from age 7 to age 11):This is the turning point in the child’s cognitive development because this is the point when logical or operational thought develops. They can comprehend rules and understand that some social rules can be changed by free will. 4. Formal operational stage (age 11+ – adolescence and adulthood):Children develop the ability to think about abstract concepts and test hypotheses logically.

These phases clearly show the development of sophisticated thoughts in children.Every child goes through the stages in the same order, although some may never reach the later stages.Many people do not agree with Piaget’s theories. Many attempts have been made to prove the following: those problems he called formal in around 12-year-olds appeared at earlier ages. Despite all this, his partition has to be seen as the foundation of the development of thinking.

Howard Gardner summarized his criticisms about Piaget’s theories in the following way:

• Piaget’s perception is too attached to verbalism. It seems that his results are rather valid in Western cultures than in others. However, even in that area these perceptions cannot be used in every situation.
• For many people, mental development is more continuous and gradual than Piaget’s theories suggest. In Piaget’s system, there are too big jumps. Based on some modern tests, a few people say that Piaget undervalued the abilities of the examined subjects.
• As opposed to Piaget, psychologists say that we can be at a higher or lower level in one area than in another.

Lawrence KohlbergKohlberg based his moral understanding theory on Piaget’s theory. Kohlberg began his work on moral development while he was a student at the University of Chicago and then continued throughout his life. According to Kohlberg’s theory, people’s ethical behaviour goes through six developmental stages. These six stages are grouped into three levels of morality: pre-conventional, conventional, and post-conventional morality.

Here comes the Heinz dilemma, which is a frequently used example in many ethics classes. Kohlberg also used it. He wanted to know how individuals evaluate their actions if they are in moral dilemmas. He analyzed these forms and classified them into one of the six stages.Heinz’s wife was dying of cancer and needed drugs, but he did not have enough money to buy all she needed. Doctors said this drug might have saved her, but the chemist did not want to give it to him without payment. Heinz promised that he would pay for the medicine later, but the answer was still no. The husband was desperate so he broke into the pharmacy and stole the drug.“Kohlberg asked a series of questions such as:

1. Should Heinz have stolen the drug?
2. Would it change anything if Heinz did not love his wife?
3. What if the person dying was a stranger, would it make any difference?
4. Should the police arrest the chemist for murder if the woman died?” (by Saul McLeod, SimplyPsychology, updated 2013)

However, many people criticize Kohlberg’s theory; nevertheless, he created a brand new field within psychology.

The six stages in three levels are the following.First level is the pre-conventional level, which includes:

1. Punishment and obedience orientation (It is OK to do it, if you do not get caught.)
2. Instrumental-relativist orientation (If it feels good, do it.)

At the preconventional level (1st level), we do not have a personal code of morality. We just have standards of adults and consequences for our failures or rule breakings. Reasoning is based on the physical consequences of our actions. In the punishment and obedience stage (1st level/1st stage), a child wants to avoid punishment. If somebody is punished, obviously they have done something wrong. The instrumental-relativist orientation stage (1st level/2nd stage) is also called the individualism and exchange stage. At these stages, different viewpoints can be recognized and there is not only one right viewpoint as seen by authorities.

Second level is the conventional level, which includes:3. Personal conformity (The good boy/girl attitude.)4. Law and order orientation (Law and order morality, keeping rules.)

We begin to involve moral standards into our life. We realize that we belong to a group, to a kind of social life, and there are rules. Reasoning is based on the rules of the group and these rules are based on the morality of this group. On the personal conformity stage (2nd level/3rd stage), the individual wants to be seen as a good person by others, so their actions need to be related to the approval of others. On the law and order orientation stage (2nd level/4th stage), we try to maintain social order and rules. Here, they want to uphold the rules primarily and avoid guilt.

Third level is the post-conventional level, which includes:5. Social contract orientation6. Universal ethical principles

In the post-conventional section, the value system of the individual develops. They have some principles that they choose. They will have self-chosen justice. On the stage of social contract orientation (3rd level/5th stage), the individual realizes that sometimes the rules or laws work against the interests of individuals, however, we need these for the greatest social good. On the universal ethical principle stage (3rd level/6th stage), the individual will have their own moral guideline. Sometimes this kind of ethical code does not fit the law, but these principles apply to everybody.“E.g., human rights, justice, and equality. The person will be prepared to act to defend these principles even if it means going against the rest of society in the process and having to pay the consequences of disapproval and/or imprisonment. Kohlberg doubted few people reached this stage.” (by Saul McLeod, SimplyPsychology, updated 2013)

Piaget’s theory in certain parts is based on neurobiology and he considered biological features. These are proved by the stages, which are based on characteristics of ages. Besides, Kohlberg’s theory is primarily led by a social viewpoint. He examines the rules of the individual from the viewpoint of law and social life.

I also have some experience about moral understanding from my sessions as a coach. Primarily about cognitive development, it seems to me that people have two kinds of thinking methods. Feelings have their own logical system and thoughts have another kind of logical system. For instance, we do something wrong. We apologize and they forgive us. We know that we did not do real harm, but we feel remorse. Although we know, our feelings say something else.

But I have some interesting experience about value systems as I mentioned above about home values and created values. The home values are built in childhood, the created values are those built up during adult years from different personal experiences. I have noticed that these two kinds of value systems can cause different inner conflicts.

As I examined Piaget’s cognitive development theory and Kohlberg’s moral theory, I realized that my coaching session experiences fit into these. The feeling’s and thought’s logical systems fit into Piaget’s cognitive development theory. The two kinds of value systems—home values and created values—fit into Kohlberg’s moral understanding theory. Maybe it is worth examining these in another essay.

Bibliography

1. Kohlberg, Lawrence (1973). The Claim to Moral Adequacy of a Highest Stage of Moral Judgment. Journal of Philosophy
2. Kohlberg, Lawrence (1958). The Development of Modes of Thinking and Choices in Years 10 to 16 (Ph.D. dissertation). University of Chicago.
3. Kohlberg, Lawrence (1976). Moral stages and moralization: The cognitive-developmental approach. In Lickona, T. Moral Development and Behavior: Theory, Research and Social Issues. Holt, NY: Rinehart and Winston.
4. Piaget, Jean (1932). The Moral Judgment of the Child. London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner and Co.
5. Saul McLeod (2018), Jean Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development, file:///C:/Users/Dell/Desktop/Psyschology/simplypsychology.org-Jean-Piaget.pdf
6. Saul McLeod (2013), Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development, file:///C:/Users/Dell/Desktop/Psyschology/simplypsychology.org-Kohlberg.pdf
7. Sliwa, Paulina (2017), Moral understanding as knowing right from wrong, file:///C:/Users/Dell/Desktop/Psyschology/Sliva_moral_understanding.pdf