Development is a process in which qualitative, quantitative, or moral changes occur and something or someone begins to function in a more differentiated way. This is a process that lasts from birth to death. Development and socialization are inseparable. Both biological (inherited) development and social effects (environment) have an influence. The level and rhythm of different skills and abilities are not exactly measurable. We can develop anything, though we have physical limitations. Development can last a lifetime.
Firstly, here is a short history of developmental psychology. It was born after the industrial revolution. In this period, there was a need for an educated workforce, so the concept of childhood began to be handled as a distinct stage in a person’s life. Professionals wanted to know how they could make education more effective through learning. They were interested in the minds of children.
In 1877, Charles Darwin published a study that dealt with the development of innate forms of communication based on scientific observations. This was the first systematic study of developmental psychology. The foundation of this study was his son, Doddy. In 1882, a German physiologist, Wilhelm Preyer, published the book called The Mind of the Child. Preyer had a daughter who was the subject of his research. He used strict procedures during the research. He examined his daughter from birth to two and a half years. By the end of the 1800s, developmental psychology as a discipline was fully established in Europe.
During the 1900s, there were three dominant viewpoints about personal development, namely Jean Piaget’s theory (1896-1980), Lev Vygotsky’s theory (1896-1934), and John Bowlby’s theory (1907-1990). They had a great effect on later scientists.
Notion of Developmental Psychology
By developmental psychology, we mean those kinds of personality, moral, intellectual, and spiritual development that run from childhood to adulthood. In this topic, we deal with development from a scientific approach. We examine how behavior changes through changed thinking and feeling, and how our life changes because of it.
We focus on childhood because this is the period when the most change occurs. “The three goals of developmental psychology are to describe, explain, and to optimize development (Baltes, Reese, & Lipsitt, 1980). To describe development it is necessary to focus both on typical patterns of change (normative development) and on individual variations in patterns of change (i.e. idiographic development).”
As mentioned above, we can observe patterns. The pattern is a kind of recurring manifestation—repetition in a phenomenon or behavior. We can recognize typicalities. Although there are typicalities, no two people are alike.
Notion of Attachment
The next question we have to clarify is what attachment is exactly. We know that there is a close relationship between babies and their caregivers. That kind of strong emotional bond between infants and their caregivers is attachment. Someone says this kind of emotional power is like gravity. The essence of attachment theory is that our beloved person is our shelter. In the broadest sense, we call attachment that kind of intention that is between two people who want to achieve and maintain proximity. These can be physical, emotional, and psychological attachment. A scientist called Maccoby (1980) observed four kinds of behaviors which prove the attachment between young children and their caregivers. These are:
- seeking closeness
- separation anxiety
- real gladness when reunited with their parents or caregivers
- general orientation towards their parents or caregivers
If we want to understand the attachment of babies, we need to understand two different approaches. These are learning theory and evolutionary theory. Under learning theory, we need to examine two types of learning: operant and classical conditioning.
Attachment Theory
Attachment theory is linked to John Bowlby. He focuses on the importance of “open, intimate, emotionally meaningful” relationships. Attachment is a biological system that is a survival impulse for a child. Ensuring the survival of the baby is at the center. Children are vulnerable, so they seek the possibilities of survival subconsciously. Children attach to those caregivers who provide physical, emotional, and psychological security. Mary Ainsworth developed the “strange situation protocol” and the concept of a safe base. What is common in these theories is that proven attachment occurs in early childhood and continues into adulthood. She was interested in the effects of separation on the child’s development. She compared broken maternal-child relationships and normal (natural) mother-child relationships. This research showed that the lack of a mother has “harmful developmental effects”. She and her colleagues worked out an alien procedure that is widely used. Ainsworth distinguished four main behaviors in infants that I would just like to mention and list in my essay:
- general orientation to the mother
- stranger anxiety
- separation anxiety
- behavior towards mother or reunion
Cultural Variations of Attachment
The Strange Situation procedure has had a great effect on developmental psychology. Afterwards, it became a recognized method to identify differences in attachment types. The procedure has been used in a variety of cultural settings to identify differences. Besides, they examined cultural influences. One of the most well-known cross-cultural studies was made by Van Ijzendoorn & Kroonenberg in 1988. The test of Van Ijzendoorn & Kroonenberg summarized findings from 8 countries. It included the UK, US, Sweden, Japan, China, Holland, Germany & Israel, 32 studies and nearly 2000 Strange Situation classifications in total. Results showed some interesting consequences. I would just like to highlight some of these: Average findings were consistent with Ainsworth’s research: Secure 65%, Avoidant 21%, Resistant 14%. Besides, there were very big intercultural differences. In cross-cultural differences, the effects of mass media were felt, which portrayed notions of parenting. To evaluate, Van Ijzendoorn & Kroonenberg’s research showed that the comparison has great reliability. The weakness of this study was that Africa, South America, and Eastern European socialist countries were not represented. Besides, we couldn’t know how much attachment types vary between cultures. We also learned that in this research, for instance, when researchers interpret non-American infant behavior, it is being judged against an American standard. In 1990, Takahashi repeated the Strange Situation with 60 middle-class Japanese infants & mothers, using the same standardized procedure and behavioral categories. Takahashi found that: “0% insecure-avoidant. Infants became severely distressed in the “infant alone step”; this situation was quite unnatural and broke cultural norms for the infants. 32% insecure-resistant. 68% secure. 90% of infant-alone steps had to be stopped due to excessive infant anxiety.” To evaluate Takahashi, we can say that the weakness of the research is that it could be seen as unethical—the harm that the procedure caused was bigger than what was needed. The level of harm can be considered unjustifiable.
What Does Learning Theory Mean?
At first, we need to clarify what learning means exactly. In a common sense: all forms of learning have the result of knowledge and ability that did not exist before. In a pedagogical sense: knowledge acquired during education, skills, and competences. In a psychological sense: all kinds of performance, behavior, or change in knowledge that has an external effect, experience, or practice. “Learning theory describes how students absorb, process, and retain knowledge during learning. Cognitive, emotional, and environmental influences, as well as prior experience, all play a part in how understanding, or a worldview, is acquired or changed and knowledge and skills retained.”
Associative Learning
This is a form of learning. Firstly, we need to clarify that knowledge has elements. The phrase associative is about connecting two or more things that are related to each other. This is a mental phenomenon, a mental method. Associative learning is based on the creation of a link between knowledge. The result of learning is the relationship. By relationship, I mean repeated spatial, temporal coincidence, and similar or opposite properties are important. The importance of associative learning in pedagogy was first emphasized by J. Herbart, and its psychological foundations were studied by association psychology. Associative learning is very important in pedagogy. It was first emphasized by J. Herbart. He examined the psychological foundations of associative learning and association psychology. Associative learning includes classical conditioning and operant conditioning (association).
Operant Conditioning
It is a process of developing behaviors which have different kinds of consequences. These consequences have an impact on the environment, but these consequences also have an impact on these behaviors. All behavior has consequences. Operant behavior is special. It is special because the person is doing it actively. Their aim is to achieve their goals. Therefore, operant behavior is intentional, as opposed to accidental or instinctive behavior.
One of the biggest figures of behaviorism is B. F. Skinner. He worked with animals and researched their learning typicalities. This examination is called the “Skinner box.” It is about the differences between positive and negative reinforcement. As a result, we could say that positive reinforcement means: action + positive reinforcement as reward = repeated action. In real life, we have some experience about reward. For instance, we get money for our work or we are appreciated in return; we win the race and get a trophy or any prize. The opposite of positive reinforcement is called negative reinforcement. While positive reinforcement means that we want the result of something, negative reinforcement means that we want to avoid the result. A real-life example of this is smoking. If nicotine decreases, the desire for another cigarette grows.
Classical Conditioning
Classical conditioning is based on an involuntary association between two stimuli. The basic phenomena of classical conditioning were systematically studied by Ivan Petrovich Pavlov, a Russian psychologist. He just wanted to examine the digestive system of dogs when he identified a type of learning called classical conditioning. He observed that stimuli can be interconnected. This is why it is enough if one stimulus is present.
What Is the Difference Between Classical and Operant Conditioning?
Both of them belong to the association learning models. Both are based on relating to stimuli which were originally separate stimuli. However, there is an important difference: the passive or active role of the experimental entity. In classic conditioning (Pavlov), the experimenter acts, and the animal has to learn the connection between the stimuli (for example, sound or light before feeding). So, here is a neutral stimulus which means motivation. However, during operant conditioning, the entity acts themselves and learns the consequences of their actions.
Developmental Psychology
It would be important here to mention evolutionary developmental psychology (EDP for short). This is a research area that focuses on the principles of Darwinian evolution and natural selection. Through this, it wants to understand human behavior and the development of cognition. This includes studying genetic and environmental mechanisms, epigenetic (gene-environment interactions) processes. EDP claims that natural selection can promote the development of individual differences through “adaptive plasticity.” EDP is closely related to the theory of evolutionary psychology (EP), but differs in many areas.
What Is Real World Implication Exactly?
First, we need to clarify what implication is exactly. Implication is an effect that happens as a result of a previous event or action. It is a noticeable result. The purpose of attachment is detachment. The security of attachment is expressed by the gradual reduction of affectionate behavior. The child can move away from their parents and actively explore their surroundings. This is a paradox. The stronger the attachment, the braver the child will be to discover their surroundings. They will become more independent and more easily independent of their parents. If a child’s parents are available when needed, the child will be solid in their emotions and they will be able to take advantage of opportunities. The child needs the parent to support their independence efforts (Bowlby, 1988). The parent is the safe base itself in attachment. The parent is on standby if they are needed. Children can go to explore the world for longer and longer times from the parents. If the child behaves bravely in the presence of the caregiver, it means safe attachment (Bowlby 1973). In the lack of a safe base, attachment may be confused. The child may be more shy and less independent, and the process of detachment may be delayed.
Using Attachment Theory to Improve the Child-Caregiver Relationship
“Research tells us that the majority of caregivers are unaware of basic attachment principles. Most do not realize that how they respond to their children’s signs of distress has a powerful impact on their infant’s long-term socio-emotional development. Further, most prenatal education classes do not teach caregivers these principles.”
Attachment Theory in Schools
The implications of attachment theory are becoming more important to the work of schools. It is linked to the name of Professor Elizabeth Harlow. We know that babies are most attached to people who are familiar with them because they have responded to their needs in the first months. Those children who have suffered neglect know less about safe attachments. As a consequence, continuity and an understanding environment are very important. They need one or more relationships that provide a secure base. These are essential for the future and their development. The secure and trusting relationship is very important also in the school environment. Introducing attachment theory to the school environment is not just important. It is a real aim and need. It could help a greater appreciation of the emotional needs of children and young people. They could understand themselves better in their relationships. If children and school staff members could have a safe relationship, maybe school could become a safe environment. Attachment theory has been seen as relevant for schools in general (see Bomber & Hughes 2013; Geddes 2006; and Marshall 2014). They said that bringing attachment theory into schools could improve the wellbeing of pupils and help them in academic performance (see Bergin & Bergin 2009). It is necessary to help school staff members to better understand disruptive behavior and give a good answer.
The application of attachment theory in schools is well shown by Bergin and Bergin (2009). Bergin and Bergin (2009) assign that there are two main ways to use the principles of attachment theories in schools. The first one is the teacher-student relationship, the second one is the functioning of attachment theory in the whole school system.
A safe teacher-student relationship is based on trust and empathy. The student would feel safe and able to seek help if their relationship is based on the mentioned values. “Teachers should be educated in child development and have time to cultivate supportive relationships, but they also need to be authentic in their dealings, have high expectations of pupils, be well prepared for class, and facilitate pupil autonomy (in terms of being sensitive to the child’s agenda and allowing some choice).”
In a whole-school approach, we should have positive results if school leaders create a warm socio-emotional climate and a culture in their school and environment. To stimulate the sense of security, it is important to ensure continuity in environment, people, and places. Besides, the importance of essential transitions (across years and schools) also needs to be mentioned. Small schools encourage this kind of safe environment for pupils better. While Bergin and Bergin (2009) said that the attachment of a pupil to their parents and their teachers has an effect on school success, they also acknowledge that caring for children in school is a nice goal in itself (Noddings 1992).
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